TERMINOLOGI in INTERNATIONAL BUSSINESS LAW

Base on request of some friends lawyer and also students law related to global economy crisis, then following I write down some terms in International Bussiness Law:

Anstalt
An Anstalt is a Liechtenstein limited company which is often used when the capital structure is complex and the business purpose is international trade.

Articles of Association
Are the regulations for governing the rights and duties of the members of the company among themselves. Articles deal with internal matters such as general meetings, appointment of directors, issue and transfer of shares, dividends, accounts and audits.

Asset Protection Trust
A trust established offshore to protect settlors' assets against those who may attempt to make claims against them - creditors, former spouses and dependants on death.

Authorised Agent
A bank or trust company authorised by regulatory authorities to deal in foreign currency securities.

Back to back loan
A loan structure when 'A' deposits a sum of money with a bank in country 'X' on condition that a related branch, agency or bank located in country 'Y' will lend an equivalent sum to 'A' or a designee in country 'Y'.

Bare Trusts
Also known as dry, formal, naked, passive or simple trusts. These are trusts where the trustees have no duties to perform other than to convey the trust property to the beneficiary(s) when called upon to do so.

Bearer Share Certificate
A negotiable share certificated filled out in the name of the 'bearer' and not to a particular person or organisation.

Bearer Stocks/Shares
Securities for which no register of ownership is kept by the company. A bearer certificate has an intrinsic value. Dividends are not received automatically from the company but must be claimed by removing and returning 'coupons' attached to the certificate.

Beneficial Owner
The actual or economic owner of an offshore company as distinct to the registered or nominal owner.

Beneficiary
A beneficiary is a person for whose benefit the Trust is created. They may be named and identified in the Trust Instrument or described by reference to a class of beneficiaries, or in the case of discretionary trusts left to the Trustee's discretion.

Blue Chip
The most prestigious industrial shares. An American term derived from the colour of the highest value poker chip.

Bonus Issue
See Capitalisation Issue

Broker/Dealer
A London Stock Exchange member firm which provides advice and dealing services to the public and which can deal on its own account.

Call
The amount due to be paid to a company by the purchase of new or partly paid shares.

Call Account
A deposit account with a financial institution without a fixed maturity date. The deposit can be 'called' (withdrawn) at any time. Call account deposits are usually one to seven day placements, however, two parties can agree on different maturities.

Call Option
The right to buy stock or shares at an agreed price at a future date.

Capital Controls
Government restrictions on the acquisition of foreign assets or foreign liabilities by domestic citizens, or the acquisition of domestic assets or domestic liabilities by foreigners.

Capitalisation Issue
The process whereby money from a company's reserves is converted into issued capital and then distributed to shareholders as new shares, in proportion to their original holdings, also known as bonus or scrip issue.

Captive Insurance Company
A wholly owned or controlled subsidiary company established by a non-insurance parent for participation in the insurance risks of the parent and its other affiliates or associates.

Certificate of Incorporation
Proof of registration of a company with the Registry.

Company Limited by Guarantee
An incorporated entity without share capital.

Company Secretary
Officer of a company, statutory in most common law jurisdictions. The person or corporation responsible for acceptance of legal service and for complying with various statutory filing requirements.

Consideration
The money value of a transaction (number of shares multiplied by the price) before adding commission, stamp duty.

Copyright
The recognition by an appropriate governmental agency of the ownership of something, usually intellectual property. Designs, art, programs, literary works, music, logos, etc can be all copyrighted. Anyone wishing to use the intellectual property in any way will have to pay a fee to the copyright owner.

Corporate Director
Corporate entity appointed as director of a company. This means that a company is the director of the other company in question.

Credit Risk
The risk that a counter-party to a transaction will fail to perform according to the terms and conditions of the contract, thus causing the holder of the claim to suffer a loss.

Debenture
A loan raised by a company paying a fixed rate of interest and secured on the assets of the company.

Director
Person who conducts the affairs of a company and who may in certain circumstances be liable towards creditors and shareholders in case of failure.

Discretionary Trust
The form of trust which is usually established offshore. The 'discretions' are vested in the trustee who can usually decide which of the beneficiaries is to benefit, when and to what extent. Discretions are exercised under advice of, or suggestions from, the settlor/protector.

Dividend
That part of a company's post-tax profits distributed to shareholders, usually expressed in pence per share.

Domicile
Under English common law, domicile is the place of your permanent home and the means by which you are connected with a certain system of law for certain legal purposes such as marriage, divorce, succession of estate and taxation.

ECU
European Currency Unit

EMU
European Monetary Unit

Equity
The risk-sharing part of a company's capital, usually referred to as ordinary shares.

ESOP
Employee Share Option Plans can either be approved or unapproved for taxation purposes. A typical plan for a multi-national company may well be set up in an offshore centre and therefore be unapproved by any particular onshore taxation authority.

For example, a multi-national corporation with employees in, say 20-30 countries may well decide to set up an unapproved scheme offshore. However, in certain circumstances, case law can provide that contributions to the scheme, which are utilised to buy shares in the sponsored equity company, may be tax deductible expenses in the books of that company.

Eurobond
A bond issued in a currency of that other than that of the country or market in which it is issued. Interest is paid without the deduction of tax.

Exchange Control or Restrictions
Limits on free dealings in foreign exchange or on free transfers of funds into other currencies and other countries.

Expatriation
The removal of ones legal residence or citizenship from one country to another in anticipation of future restrictions on capital movements or to avoid estate taxes.

Fiduciary
A Fiduciary is someone who acts on behalf of another in a particular matter or transaction. A Fiduciary has power that is capable of being used to affect his Principal and who must exercise that power solely in the best interests of his Principal.

Fiduciary Account
An amount typically deposited with a Swiss Bank which will redeposit the sum with a third party bank outside Switzerland in its own name (to overcome Swiss withholding tax on interest).

Fixed Interest
Loans issued by a company, the government (gilts or gilt-edged), or local authority, where the amount of interest to be paid each year is set on issue. Usually the date of repayment is also included in the title.

Flight Capital
The movement of large sums of money from our country to another to escape political or economic turmoil, aggressive taxation or to seek higher rates of interest.

Foreign Currency Account
An account maintained in a foreign bank in the currency of the country in which the bank is located. Foreign currency accounts are also maintained for depositors by banks in the US. Such accounts usually represent that portion of the carrying bank's foreign currency account that exceeds its contractual requirements.

Gearing
A company's debts expressed as a percentage of its equity capital. High gearing means that debts are high in relation to assets.

GMBH (Ger, Gesellschaft mit Beschrankter Haftung)
In Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a limited liability company in which the liability of the members is limited to amounts agreed contributions, or as stipulated in the Articles of Association.

Grantor Trust
Under US tax law, income of the trust is taxed as the income of the grantor.

Hedge Funds
Speculative funds managing investments for private investors (in the US, such funds are unregulated if the number of investors does not exceed one hundred).

Hot Money
1 Large quantities of money that move quickly in international currency exchanges due to speculative activity.

2 Foreign funds temporarily transferred to a financial centre and subject to withdrawal at any moment.

Hybrid Companies
A hybrid company is a company having various classes of membership which typically can comprise registered stock, guaranteed membership and unlimited membership. The guarantor member being liable to contribute to the company a stated sum in the event of insolvency or liquidations, whilst an unlimited member, as the name implies, has no limit on his liability relating to the debts of the company in the event of an insolvency.

Insider Dealing
A criminal offence involving the purchase or sale of shares by someone who possesses 'inside' information about a company's performance and prospects which is not yet available to the market as a whole, and which if available might affect the share price.

International Business Company (IBC)
A term used to define a variety of offshore corporate structures. Common to all IBCs are its dedication to business use outside the incorporating jurisdiction, rapid formation, secrecy, broad powers, low cost, low to zero taxation and minimal filing and reporting requirements. An increasing number of offshore jurisdictions are permitting the use of bearer shares, nominee shareholders, directors and officers.

Laundering
Laundering is the process of cleaning illicitly gained money so that it appears to either have come from or to be going to a legitimate source.

Letter of Wishes/Memorandum of Wishes
A document prepared by the settlor of grantor of a trust providing guidance on how trustees should exercise their discretions.

License
Here you sell a person or company the right to use either a copyright or patent for a specific length of time, or in a restricted area.

Limited Partnership
A limited partnership is a partnership with at least one general partner who is fully liable for the engagements of the partnership, whilst the limited partners are only liable to the extent of their unpaid partnership capital. Limited partners may not be involved in the management of the partnership without jeopardising their limited status.

Limited Liability Partnership
A limited liability partnership is a vehicle intended for professional firms in which all partners may be involved in management but the partnership as a whole has a stated paid up capital, against which creditors may mount an action. It should be noted that in a limited liability partnership there is no limit in respect of claims of negligence against individual partnership members but the claim against the whole partnership would ipso facto be of a defined maximum amount.

Limited Liability Limited Partnership
This is a limited partnership which has been re-registered as a limited liability partnership. A limited liability limited partnership designation however indicates to third parties that the partnership commenced its activities as a limited partnership before converting to a limited liability partnership.

Managed Bank
An offshore bank also known as a Class "B" or cubicle bank. The managed bank is not required to maintain a physical presence in the licensing jurisdiction. Its presence in the licensing jurisdiction is passive with nominee directors and officers provided by a managing trust company with a physical presence. The managed bank is not permitted to transact business within the licensing jurisdiction but may maintain its books, records, etc there to assure secrecy of operations.

Memorandum of Association
The charter of a company which indicates nationality, the nature of its business and the share capital it is authorised to issue. It is a statutory document which effectively governs the company's relations with the outside world.

Naamloze Vennootschap (NV)
In Dutch Company Law, the NV is the form of incorporation favoured by larger companies. It can be compared to the American corporation.

Nominee
Company or private individual used to act as owner or director of a company on behalf of another party. This is who you say owns or runs the company.

Nominee Company
A company formed for the express purpose of holding securities and other assets in its name or to provide nominee directors and/or officers on behalf of clients of its parent bank or trust company.

Nominee Director
A director whose function is passive in nature. The director receives a fee for lending his or her name to the organisation. Nominee directors are subject to director responsibilities.

Nominee Name
Name in which security is registered and held in trust on behalf of the beneficial owner.

Offshore Company
See International Business Company.

Offshore Dollars
Same as Eurodollars but encompassing such deposits held in banks and branches anywhere outside the US, including Europe.

Offshore Financial Centres
A country or jurisdiction where an international attempt has been made to attract foreign business by deliberate government policy, such as the enactment of secrecy laws and tax incentives.

Offshore Limited Partnership
A partnership, the general partner of which is an offshore company but the limited partners may be onshore entities.

Offshore Profit Centres
Branches of major international banks and multinational corporations located in a low tax financial centre, which are established for the purpose of lowering taxes.

Offshore Trust
The quality that differentiates an offshore trust from an onshore trust is portability. The offshore trust can be transferred to alternative jurisdictions to maintain confidentiality and to advantage desirable facets of the new jurisdiction's laws.

Patent
The recognition by an appropriate governmental agency of the ownership of an idea, process, development, etc. (See Copyright).

Private Company
A company which does not have a listing on the Exchange and is debarred from offering its shares to the general public.

Private Trustee Company
A company incorporated in certain offshore jurisdictions, such as Bermuda, to act as a trustee for a limited class or group of trusts. Private trustee companies are not permitted to offer trustee services to the public generally.

Protected Cell Company (PCC)
A protected cell company may be viewed as a doughnut, the centre of which is the ordinary share capital of the company around which clusters a number of cells, which are individually capitalised with preference capital. The company may contract for individual cells to carry out certain activities on behalf of the company. However, it should be noted that under the PCC Legislation a cell is capable of going bankrupt in certain circumstances, leaving the core share capital untouched. A PCC is similar to a divisionalised entity, save that each division or cell can go bankrupt without the entire company being placed in jeopardy.

Protector
A person appointed by the settlor/grantor of a trust, who has limited powers to control the trustee and usually has the right to change trustees.

Proxy
A person empowered by a shareholder to vote on his behalf at meetings.

Public Limited Company (Plc)
A public company limited by shares or by guarantee and having share capital, which may offer shares for purchase by the general public. Only Plcs may qualify for listing on the London Stock Exchange.

Purpose Trust
A trust created for an express purpose without any individually ascertained or ascertainable beneficiaries. A purpose trust is typically used in circumstances where the trust would not be exclusively charitable but wholly philanthropic.

Re-domiciliation Corporations
Some offshore jurisdictions allow corporations incorporated in other jurisdictions to re-incorporate in their own at will.

Re-invoicing
Service offered to offshore trading companies so that legal title to trade goods passes to an offshore company at some intermediate point in a transaction.

Resident Company
A bank, trust company or holding company permitted to deal only in local currency. Foreign currency transactions must be approved by the appropriate regulatory authority.

Restricted Bank and/or Trust Licence
Permits the holder to carry on business with certain specified persons whose names are usually listed in the licence.

Securities
General name for all stocks and shares of all types. In common usage, stocks are fixed interest securities and shares are the rest, although strictly speaking the distinction is that stock is denominated in money terms.

Securitisation
This is a method by which entities can raise capital. It involves them converting some of their assets into securities rather than selling them, for example, a Bank could convert its loans into Mortgage Bonds and sell them as such.

Service Company
A company located in an offshore financial centre to provide management, invoicing and other services for client companies located in other countries. Initially used to advantage double taxation treaties. Service companies are now frequently used to facilitate flight capital outflow, and are often involved in money laundering schemes.

Settlor
The Settlor is the person who establishes the Trust. He is the person who transfers money or other property to the Trustees for them to hold upon the terms of the Trust.

Shelf Company
Companies incorporated and held in stock for later use. This is often the fastest way to obtain offshore companies since they are fully formed and available instantly.

SRO (Self Regulating Organisation)
An organisation recognised by the SIB and responsible for monitoring the conduct of business and capital adequacy of investment firms.

Stamp Duty
A UK tax currently levied on the purchase of shares.

Stiftung
The Stiftung is a private establishment and this legal form is unique to Liechtenstein. The entity is an autonomous fund with a legal personality. The capital is not divided into shares, and the economic benefits are usually vested in the holder of the "founder's" rights.

Trust
A trust is a common law legal structure used to legally separate the owner from his assets by handing over control to a third party, known as a trustee.

[+/-] Read more...

[+/-] Read more...

Arbitrase dan Kelebihannya

Definisi Arbitrase
Menurut BLACK’S Law Dictionary: “Arbitration. The reference of a dispute to an impartial (third) person chosen by the parties to the dispute who agree in advance to abide by the arbitrator’s award issued after hearing at which both parties have an opportunity to be heard. An arrangement for taking and abiding by the judgement of selected person in some disputed matter, instead of carrying it to establish tribunal; of justice, and is intended to avoid the formalities, the delay, the expense and vexation of ordinary litigation.” Sedangkan menurut Pasal 1 angka 1 Undang-Undang Nomor 30 Tahun 1999, Arbitrase adalah cara penyelesaian suatu sengketa perdata di luar peradilan umum yang didasarkan pada perjanjian arbitrase yang dibuat secara tertulis oleh para pihak yang bersengketa.

Kelebihan Arbitrase
Kelebihan arbitrase dapat dibaca pada Penjelasan Umum UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 terutama pada paragrap ke-4. Pada bagian ini dituliskan beberapa kelebihan lembaga arbitrase dibandingkan lembaga peradilan/litigasi, yakni:
a. dijamin kerahasiaan sengketa para pihak;
b. dapat dihindari kelambatan yang diakibatkan karena hal prosedural dan administratif;
c. para pihak dapat memilih arbiter yang menurut keyakinannya mempunyai pengetahuan, pengalaman serta latar belakang yang cukup mengenai masalah yang disengketakan, jujur dan adil;
d. para pihak dapat menentukan pilihan hukum untuk menyelesaikan masalahnya serta proses dan tempat penyelenggaraan arbitrase; dan
e. putusan arbiter merupakan putusan yang mengikat para pihak dan dengan melalui tata cara (prosedur) sederhana saja ataupun langsung dapat dilaksanakan.
Kelebihan-kelebihan arbitrase yang termuat pada bagian Penjelasan Umum diatas, dikuatkan lagi dalam bentuk muatan isi pasal-pasal yang ada di UU No. 30 Tahun 1999. Berikut adalah pembahasan kelebihan-kelebihan tersebut disertai dengan analisis kritis terhadap kelebihan-kelebihan tersebut:

1. Rahasia
Proses Arbitrase memiliki bentuk dan prosedur administratif, komunikatif, rapat-rapat dan sidang dengan arbiter secara rahasia. Proses ini penting agar tidak ada informasi yang diungkapkan oleh para pihak atau arbiter kepada pihak lain yang tidak ada kaitannya dengan sengketa. Landasan hukum dari proses ini dapat dibaca pada bagian Penjelasan Umum paragrap ke-4 dari UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 yang menyebutkan: “dijamin kerahasiaan sengketa para pihak”, dan juga pada bagian Pasal 27 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 yang menyebutkan bahwa: “semua pemeriksaan sengketa oleh arbiter atau majelis arbitrase dilakukan secara tertutup”. Ketentuan kerahasiaan ini adalah menyimpang dari ketentuan acara perdata yang berlaku di Pengadilan Negeri yang pada prinsipnya terbuka untuk umum. Hal ini penting untuk lebih menegaskan sifat kerahasiaan penyelesaian arbitrase. Para pihak yang selama ini bersengketa umumnya perusahaan-perusahaan atau para pengusaha yang menekankan aspek menjaga nama baik dan menghindari publisitas agar tidak mengganggu reputasi pribadi dan kinerja perusahaan. Namun. permasalahnya adalah sampai sejauh mana kerahasiaan para pihak dijamin? Mengingat kerahasiaan menurut Pasal 27 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 hanya pada tahap pemeriksaan sengketa. Apakah diperbolehkan mengumumkan hasil putusan sengketa arbitrase yang telah melalui tahapan pemeriksaan sengketa yang tertutup?. Jika dibaca pada Peraturan Prosedur Arbitrase Badan Arbitrase Nasional Indonesia, terutama pada Pasal 13 angka 2 yang menyebutkan bahwa: ” Seluruh persidangan ditutup untuk umum dan segala hal yang berkaitan dengan penunjukan arbiter, termasuk dokumen-dokumen, laporan/catatan sidang-sidang, keterangan-keterangan saksi dan putusan-putusan, harus dijaga kerahasiaannya diantara para pihak, para arbiter dan BANI kecuali oleh peraturan perundang-undangan hal tersebut tidak diperlukan atau disetujui oleh semua pihak yang bersengketa.” Jadi, pada prinsipnya kerahasiaan tersebut bisa diungkapkan atas dasar persetujuan bersama atau peraturan perundang-undangan memerintahkan untuk membuka rahasia tersebut. Sehingga jika ada sebuah kasus sengketa arbitrase yang hasilnya diumumkan ke publik tanpa persetujuan para pihak, tentu melanggar ketentuan-ketentuan mengenai arbitrase.
Dengan argumentasi diatas, maka jelas keberadaan bagian Penjelasan Umum paragrap ke-4 dan Pasal 27 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 dapat dijustifikasi dengan baik dibandingkan dengan proses litigasi (perdata) di Pengadilan yang tentunya proses pemeriksaan perkara bersifat wajib terbuka.

2. Menghindari Kelambatan
Proses hukum yang pasti dan cepat tentunya merupakan harapan semua pihak yang selama ini menjadi pihak dalam sengketa hukum, terutama dalam bidang hukum perdata yang banyak menyentuh aspek sengketa perdagangan agar tidak mengganggu proses ataupun kinerja usahanya. Proses litigasi di pengadilan menurut peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku tidak memberikan ruang yang pasti untuk mempercepat penyelesaian sengketa. Proses litigasi ini relatif membutuhkan waktu yang sangat lama dibandingkan proses arbitrase. Hal ini tercermin dari proses urutan litigasi yang dimulai dari tahap pertama (gugatan), banding, kasasi dan peninjauan kembali. Oleh sebab itu proses arbitrase dapat menjadi salah satu terobosan untuk mengatasi permasalahan ini. Proses waktu penyelesaian perkara di arbitrase dapat dibaca pada Pasal 48 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 yang menyebutkan:
a. ayat 1: “Pemeriksaan atas sengketa harus diselesaikan dalam waktu paling lama 180 (seratus delapan puluh) hari sejak arbiter atau majelis arbiter terbentuk.”;
b. ayat 2: “Dengan persetujuan para pihak dan apabila diperlukan sesuai ketentuan Pasal 33, jangka waktu sebagaimana dimaksud dalam ayat (1) dapat diperpanjang.”
Sebagai justifikasi atas kelebihan proses arbitrase ini, maka dapat dibaca pada Pasal 60 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999, yang menyebutkan bahwa: “Putusan arbitrase bersifat final dan mempunyai kekuatan hukum tetap dan mengikat para pihak.” Namun, permasalahannya adalah ada pada Pasal 48 ayat (2) UU No. 30 Tahun 1999, yang memungkinkan perpanjangan waktu untuk menyelesaikan perkara arbitrase, walaupun ada ketentuan yang mensyaratkan harus dengan persetujuan para pihak tetap saja hal ini menyebabkan proses penyelesaian perkara yang memakan waktu lama berdasarkan kepentingan dan keinginan para pihak. Pasal ini tentu tidak selaras dengan maksud dan tujuan sebagaimana yang diamanatkan pada Pasal 48 ayat (2) tersebut sehingga lebih baik dihapuskan atau direvisi dengan kalimat yang justru menjustifikasi kelebihan proses arbitrase pada bagian Penjelasan Umum paragrap UU No. 30 Tahun 1999.

3. Dapat Memilih Arbiter yang Cakap, Jujur dan Adil
Arbiter adalah seorang atau lebih yang dipilih oleh para pihak yang bersengketa atau yang ditunjuk oleh Pengadilan Negeri atau oleh lembaga arbitrase, untuk memberikan putusan mengenai sengketa tertentu yang diserahkan penyelesaiannya melalui arbitrase. Untuk memilih arbiter tentu memiliki kriteria-kriteria tertentu yang diharapkan para pihak. Diantaranya adalah memiliki pengetahuan, pengalaman serta latar belakang untuk memahami dan mengerti obyek sengketa. Disamping itu juga arbiter harus bertindak jujur dan adil. Dalam memilih arbiter para pihak yang bersengketa dapat menggunakan ketentuan yang terdapat dalam Pasal 12 s.d. 16 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999. Syarat-syarat untuk diangkat menjadi arbiter adalah: cakap melakukan tindakan hukum; berumur minimum 35 tahun; tidak mempunyai hubungan keluarga sedarah atau semenda sampai dengan derajat kedua dengan salah satu pihak bersengketa; tidak mempunyai kepentingan finansial atau kepentingan lainnya atas putusan arbitrase; memiliki pengalaman serta menguasai secara aktif di bidangnya minimun 15 tahun dan bukan merupakan pejabat peradilan. Jika para pihak tidak sepakat atau tidak ada ketentuan yang dibuat dalam memilih arbiter, maka dapat memohon kepada Ketua Pengadilan Negeri untuk menunjuk arbiter atau majelis. Arbiter yang ditunjuk atau diangkat dapat menerima atau menolak penunjukan atau pengangkatan tersebut dan wajib memberitahukannya secara tertulis kepada para pihak dalam waktu paling lama 14 (empat belas) hari terhitung sejak tanggal penunjukan atau pengangkatan. Jadi pada prinsipnya para pihak yang bersengketa “bebas” untuk memilih arbiter sebagaimana yang mereka butuhkan. Namun, permasalahannya adalah untuk menyatukan dua kepentingan yang berbeda (dua pihak) agak sedikit sulit dan membutuhkan waktu agar terjadi kesepakatan. Akan tetapi untuk memilih arbiter yang “expert” tentu membutuhkan kesabaran mengingat solusi yang ingin dicapai tentu merupakan suatu hal yang sangat penting bagi para pihak. Catatan dari proses memilih arbiter adalah tidak adanya kriteria untuk mencari arbiter yang jujur dan adil sebagaimana yang diamanatkan dalam bagian Penjelasan Umum paragrap ke-4 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 sehingga hendaknya harus diatur bagaimana ukuran seorang arbiter dapat dikatakan memenuhi syarat jujur dan adil. Akan tetapi proses pemilihan arbiter dalam arbitrase jauh lebih baik dibandingkan proses litigasi yang hakim-hakimnya sudah ditetapkan dan seringkali penetapan tersebut tidak berdasarkan atas kecakapan, kejujuran dan keadilan sehingga seringkali putusan-putusan yang dihasilkan oleh proses litigasi tidak berdimensi atas pengetahuan dan pemahaman hukum yang ‘expert’ atas perkara yang ditangani.

4. Pilihan Hukum
Para pihak dapat menentukan pilihan hukum untuk menyelesaikan masalahnya serta proses dan tempat penyelenggaraan arbitrase. Hukum yang mengatur materi sengketa adalah hukum yang dipilih dalam perjanjian komersial yang bersangkutan yang menimbulkan sengketa antara para pihak. Jika para pihak dalam perjanjiannya tidak mengatur mengenai hukum yang mengatur, para pihak bebas memilih hukum yang berlaku berdasarkan kesepakatan bersama. Justifikasi atas penjelasan umum ini dapat dibaca pada Pasal 56 ayat (2) UU No. 30 Tahun 1999 yang menyebutkan bahwa: “Para pihak berhak menentukan pilihan hukum yang akan berlaku terhadap penyelesaian sengketa yang mungkin atau telah timbul antara para pihak.” Penjelasan atas pasal ini menyebutkan bahwa para pihak yang bersengketa diberi keleluasaan untuk menentukan hukum mana yang akan diterapkan dalam proses arbitrase. Apabila para pihak tidak menentukan lain, maka hukum yang diterapkan adalah hukum tempat arbitrase. Dari bunyi dan penjelasan pasal 56 ayat (2) a quo, maka sangat dimungkinkan para pihak memilih sistem hukum yang akan digunakan. Permasalahnya adalah ‘hak’ para pihak ini biasanya tidak bisa sepenuhnya dapat dilaksanakan tergantung dari posisi yang dimiliki masing-masing pihak. Oleh sebab itu penggunaan hak tersebut terkadang tidak berjalan dengan baik dan terkadang terkesan menjadi kewajiban mengingat posisi tawar yang satu bisa jadi lemah dibandingkan yang lain. Sehingga pilihan hukum yang digunakan biasanya mengacu pada pilihan pihak yang memiliki posisi tawar yang lebih baik. Namun demikian, proses memilih sistem hukum ini lebih baik dibandingkan proses litigasi yang berdasarkan kepada satu hukum acara saja, dengan tidak memandang karakteristik, asal, budaya, dan subyek hukum dalam sengketa yang dapat mengakibatkan ketidakadilan pada salah satu pihak dalam sengketa.

5. Pilihan Acara (Prosedur, Waktu dan Tempat)
Para pihak dalam suatu perjanjian yang tegas dan tertulis, bebas untuk menentukan acara arbitrase yang digunakan dalam pemeriksaan sengketa sepanjang tidak bertentangan dengan ketentuan dalam UU No. 30 Tahun 1999. Setelah memilih acara arbitrase yang digunakan, selanjutnya adalah menentukan jangka waktu dan tempat diselenggarakannya arbitrase. Ketentuan-ketentuan ini telah termuat dalam Pasal 31 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999. Menurut Pasal 34 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999, penyelesaian sengketa melalui arbitrase dapat menggunakan lembaga arbitrase nasional atau internasional berdasarkan kesepakatan para pihak dengan menggunakan hukum acara dari lembaga yang dipilih kecuali para pihak menentukan lain.

6. Putusan Final dan Mengikat serta Dapat Langsung Dilaksanakan
Pelaksanaan putusan arbitrase nasional diatur dalam Pasal 59-64 UU No.30 Tahun 1999. Pada dasarnya para pihak harus melaksanakan putusan secara sukarela. Agar putusan arbitrase dapat dipaksakan pelaksanaanya, putusan tersebut harus diserahkan dan didaftarkan pada kepaniteraan pengadilan negeri, dengan mendaftarkan dan menyerahkan lembar asli atau salinan autentik putusan arbitrase nasional oleh arbiter atau kuasanya ke panitera pengadilan negeri, dalam waktu 30 (tiga puluh) hari setelah putusan arbitase diucapkan. Berdasarkan Pasal 60 UU No. 30 Tahun 1999, Putusan Arbitrase bersifat final, mempunyai kekuatan hukum tetap dan mengikat para pihak. Dengan demikian tidak dapat diajukan banding, kasasi atau peninjauan kembali. Sehingga Ketua Pengadilan Negeri tidak diperkenankan memeriksa alasan atau pertimbangan dari putusan arbitrase nasional tersebut. Kewenangan memeriksa yang dimiliki Ketua Pengadilan Negeri, terbatas pada pemeriksaan secara formal terhadap putusan arbitrase nasional yang dijatuhkan oleh arbiter atau majelis arbitrase. Berdasar Pasal 62 UU No.30 Tahun 1999 sebelum memberi perintah pelaksanaan, Ketua Pengadilan memeriksa dahulu apakah putusan arbitrase memenuhi Pasal 4 dan Pasal 5 (khusus untuk arbitrase internasional). Bila tidak memenuhi maka, Ketua Pengadilan Negeri dapat menolak permohonan arbitrase dan terhadap penolakan itu tidak ada upaya hukum apapun.

Analisis terhadap Proses Arbitrase
Posisi Kasus I
Sengketa arbitrase ini melibatkan pihak Pertamina sebagai Tergugat dan KBC Karaha Bodas sebagai Penggugat. Kasus ini berawal dari pembatalan Proyek Karaha Bodas melalui Keputusan Presiden Nomor 5 Tahun 1998. Dimana dalan kontrak perjanjian Pertamina dengan KBC pada Pasal 20 Joint Operation Contract dan 12. 1 Energy Sales Contract, disebutkan dengan tegas bahwa perjanjian ini tunduk pada hukum dan peraturan pemerintah Republik Indonesia. Namun, Majelis Arbitrase yang dibentuk International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes telah mengesampingkan dan melanggar hukum dan peraturan Indonesia bahkan bertindak di luar batas kewenangan yang dimiliki (Eceed its power). Persidangan arbitrase internasional The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNICITRAL) ini nyata-nyata berlangsung tidak berdasarkan kebenaran dan kepatutan (ex aequa et bono), sebagaimana prinsip yang seharusnya dianut. Juga, tidak dibuktikan terlebih dahulu sesuai dengan ketentuan Pasal 1865 KUH Perdata dan Pasal 163 HIR, serta mempertimbangkan aspek kewajaran (appropriateness). Hanya karena alasan telah wanprestasi, Majelis Arbitrase UNICITRAL menghilangkan hak Pertamina dan PLN untuk menanyakan kewajaran nilai klaim ganti rugi KBC. Ini menunjukkan, kualitas pertimbangan Majelis Arbitrase UNICITRAL pada putusan ganti rugi terhadap rencana pendapatan yang hilang (lost profit) bersifat meraba-raba, sangat spekulatif dan fiktif, karena tidak didahului dengan membuktikan adanya kerugian secara riil. Singkatnya, hanya mendasarkan pada perkiraan dan pertimbangan yang kelewat prematur, sehingga cenderung menyederhanakan persoalan.
Analisis Kasus I
Pengabaian terhadap hak untuk memilih sistem hukum yang dilakukan oleh Majelis Hakim Arbitrase UNICITRAL tentu telah melanggar prinsip-prinsip arbitrase internasional tentang penghormatan terhadap sistem hukum yang dipilih para pihak. Pengabaian ini tentu akan berakibat buruk terhadap pelaksanaan putusan arbitrase sengketa a quo.

[+/-] Read more...

[+/-] Read more...